Executive Summary
What first comes to mind when thinking about the Upper Litani River Basin’s (ULRB) hydrology is the large surface water basin formed by the Litani River and its tributaries. The less known fact is that groundwater constitutes a large resource in this basin and provides the largest share of its actual water needs including 65% of water supply for irrigation and the largest share of domestic and industrial water supply.
Groundwater has long been used by ULRB residents and allowed populations without access to rivers and springs to ensure their irrigation and domestic water needs. Prior to the 1960s, water tables were very shallow in all of the basin’s aquifers. Groundwater used to resurge in large wetlands and small springs in the plain (the Quaternary aquifer), and discharge through many medium and large springs from both mountain ranges surrounding the Bekaa Valley (the Carbonate aquifers). Outside the command areas of the spring and river-based irrigation systems, farmers would dig shallow wells in the alluvium areas which allowed them to extract important amounts of water and ensure a constant supply of water for irrigated agriculture during the summer season. Groundwater was also an important resource for livestock owners, especially the Bedouin tribes crossing the Bekaa Valley and who used to dig ditches in the plain to water their animals.
Following the expansion of drilling technology in the early 1960s that went in parallel to the mechanization of agriculture and the surge of agricultural demand in the gulf countries, groundwater started to be heavily exploited by individual users. During this period, while shallow wells were still being used in the plain, tube wells expanded rapidly in the Carbonate aquifers and contributed to the substantial increase of irrigated areas between the 1960s and the 1970s.
In the meantime, the Lebanese Government was planning the development of large scale modern irrigation systems projected to be partly supplied by the Qaraoun artificial reservoir and at a large extent by groundwater. With the support of the US Government (in the 1950s), and the French Government (in the 1960s and 1970s), a substantial number of hydrological studies and engineering plans were produced and resulted in the establishment of an “Irrigation Plan for the South-Bekaa”. The ULRB’s hydro-geologic potential was also largely investigated by the national assessment produced by UNDP, resulting in the first major characterization of aquifers across the country. The Lebanese War (1975-1990) hindered the execution of irrigation systems planned by the Government. During the reconstruction period (1990-2005), only a small part of the South-Bekaa irrigation project was executed (2,000 ha). However, the command area, projected to be entirely supplied by surface water from the Qaraoun reservoir, is still irrigated by a large extent through private individual wells (more than 1,000 ha) due to an under-sizing of the pumping stations.
From the 1960s until today, private irrigation wells expanded widely, allowing to put into irrigation most of the rain fed lands that did not have access to surface water. Their number is difficult to appraise and was estimated to be somewhere between 5,000 and 10,000.
Municipalities drilled domestic wells where state supply was absent or unreliable. House domestic wells also widely proliferated and thousands of them can now be found on the ULRB.
During the reconstruction period, the Lebanese State drilled more domestic wells as part of rehabilitation projects for domestic supply systems. In the last four years, the influx of Syrian refugees further increased pressure on water and required the drilling of new wells both in municipalities and refugee settlements. Over the years, increased groundwater abstractions led to a situation of groundwater overexploitation. Water tables lowered in all aquifers of the Basin and resulted in the drying-out of many small and medium springs. Shallow wells dug in the plain dried out since the mid 1970s and were replaced by tube wells.
However, the situation of groundwater resources in the ULRB and the impact overexploitation has had on users has remained almost unknown by decision and policy makers for more than 40 years since the period of the early hydro-geological studies (1960s to 1970s). In recent years, substantial studies assessing the current situation of groundwater were conducted with the support of international organizations. UNDP and the Ministry of Energy and Water conducted a new national groundwater assessment (2014). In cooperation with the Litani River Authority, a USAID-funded program focused on supporting the development of the ULRB and conducted a hydro-geologic assessment for the basin (2012, 2013). It located and characterized around 125 production wells across the Basin, established potentiometric maps (water levels) and a groundwater model estimating future drawdown on water tables.
These studies gave an updated picture of the current physical situation of groundwater resources after many years of an almost lack of scientific assessments, raising the alarm about the risk of further water table drawdown and the necessity to improve groundwater management and reduce abstractions. They also revealed information gaps related to many of the essential aspects to be taken into account in order to develop a comprehensive and informed reflection on groundwater management policies. At the level of groundwater use, these include: withdrawal rates for both private and public wells; the management types of private and municipal wells; the costs of well drilling, operation and maintenance; the impacts water-level declines had on users; the adaptation strategies developed by users; their perception of the problem; their non-compliance with state regulations; their readiness to compromise their current individual access to water and reduce their water consumption, etc.
At the level of state management, although many studies address the general institutional problems pertaining to the water sector, a direct focus on groundwater policies and the organizational aspects of groundwater management is missing.
The present research focuses on the drivers of groundwater use and the impact of groundwater overexploitation on users. It takes as a specific case study a limited geographic area of the Basin identified with important water table drawdown. It traces back the evolution of groundwater use in space and time since the 1960s with a focus on irrigation supply based on interviews with farmers (50), mayors and municipal officials (21) and other informants (8), as well as on a literature review, compilation of well data and direct field observations. It also looks at the institutional framework of groundwater management and its problems based on a literature review and interviews with State officials from the different water authorities (11 persons from The Ministry of Energy and Water, the Bekaa Water Establishment, the Litani River Authority and the Ministry of Agriculture).
The study area is located between the Litani River and the Anti-Lebanon Mountain Chain. It is bounded by the towns of Ryak to the North and Anjar to the South. It includes several important rivers (Hala Yahfoufa and Litani Rivers), large springs (Anjar and Chamsine springs), several dried-out springs (Ras-El-Ain of Terbol and Nabeh El Faour) and three groundwater sources (the Quaternary, Eocene and Cretaceous aquifers). It has a total area of around 14,000 ha including 8,000 ha of agricultural lands. It was further divided into seven sub-areas identified according to their own specific groundwater use evolution. The evolution of groundwater use and impacts on and between users in each of these sub-areas can be summarized as follows:
Sub-area Hala Yahfoufa: Water for irrigation and domestic use remained mainly supplied by gravity from Hala Yahfoufa River until the 1970s. Around this period, water availability from the river was substantially reduced due to increased upstream abstractions, pushing users to drill wells in the Quaternary aquifer. At present, farmers mostly rely on wells. Residents have been using house wells to complement domestic water supply from the public network until a new municipal well was drilled in the Eocene aquifer. Water levels in the Quaternary aquifer decreased from 1-5 m in the 1960s to 15-20 m at present. Well depths vary between 50 and 150 m. Given the important water capacity of the Quaternary aquifer in this area, well yields are still sufficient to irrigate water consumptive crops throughout the summer. However, users request the equitable allocation of water from the River to reduce their pumping costs. In the upcoming years, the Bekaa Water Establishment (BWE) plans to increase allocation for domestic supply from Hala Yahfoufa River as part of its recent Master Plan (2015). This would further reduce surface water availability for irrigation and increase groundwater abstraction. Farmers in this area contribute to the overexploitation of the Quaternary aquifer. Hala Yahfoufa users also have an indirect impact on the Eocene aquifer users since a substantial amount of the latter aquifer recharge comes from infiltration from the former River.
Sub-area Litani-Fourzol:
Water for irrigation used to be supplied by the Litani River (first by gravity, then pumping).
Starting in the mid-1970s, farmers started to drill wells in the Quaternary aquifer as an alternative to the reduction of water availability from the Litani River. Due to the poor capacity of the Quaternary aquifer, well yields are low and most of the area is planted with grapes. With increased abstractions over the years, water levels now reach 40 m b.g.l in the summer and well depths are between 50 and 100 m. Well yields have further been reduced, leading to drilling more wells and building storage infrastructure. Some large farmers were also reported to have accessed the deeper aquifer (Eocene). In the upcoming years, water shortage in the Quaternary aquifer is expected to further increase. However, most of the farmers would not afford to drill deep wells, which would force them to decrease their irrigated areas. Farmers of this area are negatively impacted by upstream users of the Litani River and contribute to the overexploitation of the Quaternary aquifer. Accessing the Eocene aquifer would increase the pressure on that aquifer and negatively impact its current users.
Sub-area Litani-Maallaqa:
The reduction of water availability from the Litani River which started in the mid-1970s also pushed farmers to rely on the Quaternary aquifer. The important water capacity of that aquifer allowed farmers to cultivate all types of crops throughout the summer. However, water levels have been decreasing and now reach 25 m b.g.l in the summer. Well depths vary between 50 and 200 m. In the recent years, well yields are substantially reduced starting the middle of the irrigation season, which forces farmers to reduce their cropping areas. Wells were not multiplied since most farmers are tenants renting lands from absent landlords. Accessing the deeper aquifer was not reported. It is however being considered as a solution by the rare land owners still cultivating their lands. Farmers of this area were also negatively impacted by upstream users of the Litani River. They contribute to the overexploitation of the Quaternary aquifer. Accessing the Eocene aquifer in the upcoming years would also have a negative impact on its users.
Sub-area Litani-Barr Elias:
In this area, the poor capacity of the Quaternary aquifer did not allow to use groundwater as an alternative to the reduction of water availability from the Litani River. Several wells were drilled but did not provide sufficient yields and were thus abandoned. Moreover, the predominance of land tenancy is also a constraint to the multiplication of wells. The only alternative for farmers is to irrigate with wastewater accumulating in the Litani River during summer. This represents a serious risk of crop contamination. Farmers in this area are the most negatively impacted both by upstream water users and polluters.
Sub-area Ghozayel:
Until the early 1970s, water for irrigation was provided by gravity from the Naher El Faour River originating from springs located in the Eocene aquifer. With the increased abstractions in that aquifer, water tables were substantially reduced leading to the permanent drying-out of these springs. This pushed farmers to start pumping water from the Ghozayel River located downstream. Only some wells were drilled in the small part of the Eocene aquifer outcropping in this area. Over the years, the large flow of the Ghozayel River allowed extending irrigated areas and cultivating all types of crops throughout the summer. In recent years however, water availability in the River has substantially decreased due to increased pressure on the River springs (Anjar and Chamsine). Only few farmers are able to rely on groundwater as an alternative due to financial and logistic constraints, while most of them are already forced to reduce their agricultural areas in years of low rainfall. The BWE is also planning to increase water allocation from Anjar and Chamsine springs for domestic supply. This would substantially reduce surface water availability and force farmers either to further reduce their irrigated areas or to ensure their access to groundwater. Farmers of this area are thus directly impacted by upstream users of Anjar and Chamsine springs.
Sub-area Anjar-Chamsine:
This area is characterized by important water availability both from surface water (Anjar and Chamsine springs originating from the Cretaceous aquifer) and groundwater (the Cretaceous aquifer). Chamsine spring has long been used by the State to supply domestic networks in several villages in Central and South-Bekaa. Anjar spring has been used by Anjar Community since the settlement of the Armenian community (in the late 1930s) both for irrigation and local domestic supply. The large water availability of the Cretaceous aquifer has been exploited since the 1970s for irrigation purposes in Kfarzabad and to a smaller extent in Anjar. Water tables in the Cretaceous aquifer substantially reduced since the 1970s and pushed farmers to deepen their wells. Well yields are still sufficient to practice irrigation throughout the irrigation season but substantially reduce in dry years. Both spring discharges seem to be negatively impacted and led to the drilling of wells in spring vicinities to complement both domestic supply (next to Chamsine) and irrigation supply (next to Anjar spring). The most important driver of future pressure on groundwater is the BWE project to reallocate water from Anjar spring. This would deprive Anjar farmers from a substantial discharge of Anjar spring and will push them to look for groundwater sources.
Sub-area Eocene:
Three different evolutions in groundwater use were identified in this area. They depend on the different social histories of the villages of Hoshmosh, Terbol and Faour and are closely linked to their respective land organizations. The common trend is the evolution of water supply from surface water (Hala Yahfoufa for Hoshmosh and springs originating from the Eocene for Terbol and Faour) and groundwater (wells in the Quaternary aquifer) to strictly groundwater. The heavy exploitation of the Eocene aquifer starting the 1960s led to the drying-out of the springs but allowed an important extension of irrigated areas and the establishment of large family farms. The Quaternary aquifer is also an important resource and allowed the establishment of small and medium farms. Today, water tables in the Eocene have substantially decreased and reach 30 m in years of normal rainfall. Wells were deepened and sometimes reach more than 200 m b.g.l. In Terbol however, irrigation from Eocene wells was reduced due to land fragmentation and led to the multiplication of wells in the Quaternary aquifer. The latter aquifer is also overexploited resulting in substantially lower well yields. In this area, most farmers are able to drill more wells and many have shifted to grapes. However, further groundwater abstractions are likely to lead to water shortage in the upcoming years.
The unpacking of drivers and impacts of groundwater overexploitation in each of the seven subareas revealed clear interrelations, both between the users of the same sub-area and between users of the different sub-areas: groundwater overexploitation in a certain sub-area is often a result of surface water and/or groundwater use and abstraction in another (upstream) sub-area, and can in turn impact water availability in a third (downstream) hydraulically interconnected sub-area. This creates a complex system of interrelated water uses where reducing groundwater overexploitation and balancing its negative impacts amongst the different users requires the integrated understanding and management of surface and groundwater resources.
Looking at the management strategies developed by users on the one hand, and by the different water authorities on the other, reveals many obstacles to establishing and enforcing appropriate and coordinated allocations from both surface and groundwater. At the user level, the obstacles to collective groundwater management are linked to the individualistic nature of groundwater use and the lack of clarity of water rights, and are reinforced by the general absence of collective action amongst users of the same community, or between the different user communities. This reveals that substantial challenges pertaining to water planning are to be faced by the State in the upcoming years.
However, examining the actions of the different water authorities responsible showed that many problems hinder the needed integrated planning and coordination of abstractions. These obstacles include inadequate groundwater regulations adopted by the MEW, an almost absence of enforcement on the part of the MEW and the MI, delayed/limited groundwater monitoring by LRA and, most importantly the current incapacity of the BWE to coordinate water abstractions at the level of its territory. The underlying problems are linked to structural problems of the water sector’s institutional framework (dilution of responsibilities and absence of coordination mechanisms) in addition to the general lack of human, technical and financial capacities of water authorities.
In conclusion, analyzing the historical drivers of groundwater overexploitation and its governance framework showed that the problem of groundwater management is broader than a problem of inadequacy of groundwater legislation and of its enforcement, and must be looked at as a result of a wider problem of water supply and uncoordinated water abstractions and access. A number of general recommendations can be drawn from this study and add to those commonly issued by studies and research addressing water management problems in Lebanon.
They include the strengthening of public institutions in terms of human resources and technical capacities, defining clearer responsibilities and removing overlaps and duplication, improving coordination between authorities, updating obsolete legal texts, etc.
In the short term, two main points must be addressed by decision-makers and discussed with water user representatives during the upcoming dialogue. The first concerns the importance of reviewing the future water allocation projects planned as part of BWE Master Plan, in the light of the revealed situations of surface water over allocation and groundwater overexploitation.
The second is to make use of these concrete examples of groundwater exploitation to reflect on more constraining and better adapted conditions for permit provision